Published Articles Archive

Abstract
Over the past decade, there has been a rapid increase in rocket launches. 2022 was a record-breaking year for the ‎aerospace industry, with 180 successful rocket launches into orbit, 44 more than the previous year. Reducing as ‎many risks as possible is essential as interplanetary rocket launches and reusable booster landings become more ‎frequent. One such risk occurs when a rocket/booster lands. During the landing process, the retrorockets spray debris ‎from the loose ground, which may damage the rocket/landing module. Retrorockets are rocket engines that provide ‎a thrust opposing the spacecraft’s motion, causing it to decelerate. This paper studies the effect of landing leg height ‎on ejecta velocity, the volume of debris ejected, and ground surface temperature change.  Four landing leg heights ‎were tested with an Estes® E-16 consumer model rocket motor: 0 mm, 50 mm, 75 mm, and 100 mm. The ‎experiment suggests that the optimal height above the ground’s surface for a simulated landing module based on ‎the volume and velocity of the ejecta is 50 mm. Landing legs that elevate a model rocket this height create an ‎average crater volume of 610.5 mL and a max crater diameter of 10.34 cm. After determining the optimal height, a ‎landing leg system was developed. This system was attached to an Aerodactyl TS® model rocket and utilized ‎landing legs that elevated the rocket to a height of 50 mm above the ground at landing.‎‎

Abstract
The fundamental deterministic nature of quantum mechanics (QM) is mathematically demonstrated by the modeling of the ‎‎quantum (multiple) slit experiments; hence this paper is written from a deterministic perspective (DP) in quantum mechanics.‎ Due to approximately 90 years of indeterminism and probabilistic statistical results, the theory consists of many ‎‎interpretations and is often regarded as counterintuitive. The latter is in the deterministic perspective not the case and is ‎‎illustrated with some examples. After a brief historic perspective, ‘invisible’ i.e. invisible entities of reality in mathematical ‎‎treatment, are introduced. These entities are handled by mathematics indirectly i.e. are described in a transformed domain ‎‎without variables violating the Heisenberg relation. In nature, i.e. on micro and macro levels, causality is fully ‘entangled’ with ‎‎energy, information - in the meaning of ordering or coding - as well as time. In contrast with the macro scale with many forms ‎‎and types of memory functions, without a memory property of quanta, causality is the bearer of information symmetry on ‎the ‎quantum scale. Further on in this DP paper: mathematical and philosophical consequences and influences in several ‎‎paragraphs, regarding subjects such as ‘free will’ and expected ‘threats to science’, the Bell inequalities, Alice and Bob & ‎‎entanglement, causality, information, retro-causality, spooky action, encryption and computing, teleportation, and in general ‎‎interpretations rooted in indeterminacy in QM as well as associated topics on independence, fine-tuning. The last paragraph ‎‎outlines the mathematical treatment of QM more extensively and may clarify references to the above-mentioned topics of ‎‎discussion in QM further.‎

Abstract
The search for habitable exoplanets has been an active area of research in astronomy for decades. In this study, we sought to identify exoplanets that may be suitable for life by comparing the resulting Planets to Star distance when applying the Earth & Cosmic Harmonic Factor for a sample of 5200 exoplanet candidates identified by NASA to that of Earth. After analyzing the data, we identified 5 exoplanets that had the Earth & Cosmic Harmonic Factor ratios within a range similar to that of Earth. Our findings suggest that these exoplanets may have conditions suitable for life and warrant further investigation.

Abstract
The blackhole jets, Saturn ring, dark matter and GPB anomaly are generally considered unrelated physical mysteries that have no common causes that create them. In Newtonian mechanics, the center of mass of an object change only when there is an external force applied to the object. However, the longitudinally asymmetric and radially circular (LARC) rotating objects like cone, funnel, and hemisphere have a unique mechanical property of creating a finite shift of relativistic center of mass depending on the speed of the rotation due to the difference in the instant speed of the individual mass components of the object while in rotation. This suggests that the LARC rotating object has a complex mechanical property that does not obey the conventional Newtonian mechanical principle. It turned out that in the weak field limit of general relativity there is a second order mathematical term that requires a finite shift of the center of mass to establish its physicality. This term was discarded as physically meaningless because spherical source does not develop a shift of the center of mass even in rotation due to the mathematical cancelation. It is shown that the relativistic shift of the center of mass from the rotating LARC object is the cause of the physically meaningful dipole gravity that reduces into Lense-Thirring force at the center of the rotating spherical shell. However, after careful examination we found out that the signs of Lense-Thirring forces were reversed and once the signs are corrected, dipole gravity predicts blackhole jets and the flat rotational velocity distribution curve which is the key evidence of the existence of the dark matter. We presented that the rings in Saturn, Jupiter, Neptune and Uranus, the GPB experimental anomaly are also the results of dipole gravity from the rotating spherical sources.

Abstract
We propose the magnetic sterile neutrino as a possible candidate for dark matter. We bring the idea that dark matter would be made up of substances originating from black holes, in particular sterile neutrinos associated with a magnetic charge. These would not be sensitive only to the gravitational force. First, we conjectured that when baryonic matter crosses the black holes event horizon, Maxwell's laws are reversed, the electric charge turns into a magnetic charge. Sterile magnetic neutrinos and antineutrinos would be created and emitted, true magnetic monopoles. Second, we discuss dark matter consisting of sterile magnetic neutrinos, the cosmic microwave background, mini primordial black holes, and the formation of intermediate mass black holes linked to the formation of galaxies. Third, we review different mechanisms of how sterile magnetic neutrino could have escaped from the black hole. Fourth, we investigate the possibility that ordinary neutrinos could be produced by the weak interaction if sterile magnetic dark matter neutrinos interact with active ordinary matter neutrinos. Fifth, after examining equations of possible production of gamma rays from the annihilation of neutrinos-antineutrinos, we propose the “anapole”, which would be weakly sensitive to electromagnetic forces. Before concluding, we underline the relation between the distribution of the magnetic fields coming from baryonic matter and that from dark matter, and we highlight the gamma ray glows in the dark that can be attributed to the annihilation of dark matter with itself.

Abstract
One of the enduring puzzles in high energy particle physics is why quarks do not exist independently despite their existence inside the hadron as quarks have never been found in isolation. This problem may be solved by formulating a QCD potential for the entire range of interaction distances of the quarks. The mystery could be related to the fundamental origin of the mass of elementary particles despite the success of the quantum field theories to the highest level of accuracy. The renormalization program is an essential part of the calculation of the scattering amplitudes, where the infinities of the calculated masses of the elementary particles are subtracted for the progressive calculation of the higher-order perturbative terms. The mathematical structure of the mass term from quantum field theories expressed in the form of infinities suggests that there may exist a finite dynamical mass in the limit when the input mass parameter approaches zero. The Lagrangian recovers symmetry at the same time as the input mass becomes zero, whereas the self-energy diagrams acquire a finite dynamical mass in the 4-dimensional space when the dimensional regularization method of renormalization is utilized. We report a new finding that using the mathematical expression of the self-energy(mass) for photons and gluons calculated from this method, the complex form of the QCD and QED interaction potentials can be obtained by replacing the fixed interaction mediating particle’s mass and coupling constants in Yukawa potential with the scale-dependent running coupling constant and the corresponding dynamical mass. The derived QCD QED potentials predict the behavior of the related elementary particles exactly as verified by experimental observation.

Abstract
As we know, imaginary numbers are square roots of a negative numbers. In this paper, imaginary numbers will be further defined. Every number has a sign to it. A number can either be a positive or a negative, however zero is neither positive nor negative. The number zero is what can be referred to as a neutral number since it does not have any plus or minus signs. In reality, the sign of zero is neutral which is both positive and negative at the same time. The square root of a positive one is both a positive and a negative one. In this paper a new view and discussion has been done for different mathematical operators such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division and some more idea which has never been considered earlier, called Pelletier Postulate.

Abstract
Charge conservation in the theory of elementary particle physics is one of the best-established principles in physics. As such, if there are magnetic monopoles in the universe, the magnetic charge will most likely be a conserved quantity like electric charges. If neutrinos are magnetic monopoles, as physicists have reported the possibility, the Earth should show signs of having a magnetic monopole charge on a macroscopic scale since neutrons must also have a magnetic monopole charge if the general charge conservation principle is valid. To test this hypothesis, experiments were performed to detect the collective effect of the magnetic monopole charge of neutrons on the earth's equator using two balanced high-strength neodymium rod magnets. We were able to identify the non-zero magnetic monopole charge of the individual neutrons from the experiments. The presence of individual magnetic monopole charges in the universe prompted the proposition of the new symmetric form of Maxwell's equations. Based on the theoretical investigation of the new Maxwell's equations, we conclude that magnetic monopole neutrinos are the cause of the origin of quantum mechanical uncertainty, dark energy, and the medium for electromagnetic wave propagation in space.

Abstract
Energy conservation is one of the most fundamental and well-established principles of physics. E. Noether extended the energy conservation principle to the quantum field theoretical domain in empty space by relating the time-translation invariance of the universe with energy conservation. While this is the case in an open empty space, it seems that the local space enclosed by conducting metallic plates has an unexpected property, suggesting that the energy conservation principle may not necessarily apply to localized bound systems of capacitors in electrodynamics. This point of view was raised by noting that the spherical capacitor has calculable electrostatic self-potential energy in both the inner and outer shells, which is not considered in the conventional consideration of the total energy stored in the capacitors. It seems that the concept of moving charges one by one into the capacitor plates has helped bypass the necessary steps to account for the additional repulsive self-potential energy that accumulates simultaneously in both capacitor plates in the process of charging the capacitor. We present itemized details of the repulsive potential energy stored in the capacitors and discuss its physical reality in relation to the anomalous energy devices reported in the past.

Abstract
We start from a hypothetical multi-fold universe UMF , where the propagation of everything is slower or equal to the speed of light and where entanglement extends the set of paths available to Path Integrals. This multifold mechanism enables EPR (Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen) “spooky actions at distance” to result from local interactions in the resulting folds. It produces gravity-like attractive effective potentials in the spacetime, between entangled entities, that are caused by the curvature of the folds. When quantized, multi-folds correspond to gravitons and they are enablers of EPR entanglement. Gravity emerges non-perturbative and covariant from EPR entanglement between virtual particles surrounding an entity. In UMF, we encounter mechanisms that predict gravity fluctuations when entanglement is present, including in macroscopic entanglements. Besides providing a new perspective on quantum gravity, when added to the Standard Model as (SMG), with non-negligible affects at its scales, and to the Standard Cosmology, UMF can contribute explanations of several open questions and challenges. It also clarifies some relationships and challenges met by other quantum gravity models and Theories of Everything. It leads to suggestions for these works. We also reconstruct the spacetime of UMF, starting from the random walks of particles in an early spacetime. UMF now appears as a noncommutative, discrete, yet Lorentz symmetric, spacetime that behaves roughly 2-Dimensional at Planck scales, when it is a graph of microscopic Planck size black holes on a random walk fractal structure left by particles that can also appear as microscopic black holes. Of course, at larger scales, spacetime appears 4-D, where we are able to explain curvature and recover Einstein’s General Relativity. We also discover an entanglement gravity-like contributions and massive gravity at very small scales. This is remarkable considering that no Hilbert Einstein action, or variations expressing area invariance, were introduced. Our model also explains why semi classical approaches can work till way smaller scale than usually expected and present a new view on an Ultimate Unification of all forces, at very small scales. We also explore opportunities for falsifiability and validation of our model, as well as ideas for futuristic applications, that may be worth considering, if UMF was a suitable model for our universe Ureal  .

Abstract
The Lagrangian method was applied for a linearly transformed geodesic line element of a Schwarzschild-like solution instead of the tensor method. The solution shows that it is not only valid for spherical objects but also it is more comprehensive for elliptical celestial objects. Two types of kinetic and potential energy are the basis of the calculation. Hamiltonian and Lagrangian equality show that the problem has no potential energy. With this transformed geodesic line element, we obtained a new coefficient for the meridional advance of an experimental particle in Schwarzschild spacetime in terms of period, eccentricity, and mean distance. This new perigee equation is not only valid for the Schwarzschild metric (for a spherical object), but also more accurate for the Schwarzschild-like metric (for elliptical objects).

Abstract
This publication takes a mathematical approach to a general solution to the Navier-Stokes equations. The basic idea is a mathematical analysis of the unipolar induction according to Faraday with the help of the vector analysis. The vector analysis enables the unipolar induction and the Navier-Stokes equations to be related physically and mathematically, since both formulations are mathematically equivalent. Since the unipolar induction has proven itself in practice, it can be used as a reference for describing the Navier-Stokes equations.

Abstract
The conclusion of this paper is that the strong interaction that emerged as the universe developed through the ‎mediation of two pairs of four types of neutrinos (v_µ ,v ̅_µ ,v_e ,v ̅_e) acted on two pairs of four types of ‎quarks/anti-quarks (u,u ̅,d,d ̅) to form two particle groups each having an electrical charge composition of (+1, -1, ‎‎0, 0) the π-on group (π^+,π^-,π^±,π^0 ) and the nucleon group ( p, p ̅, n, n ̅), which became the ‎constituent materials for 120 types of atomic nuclei/anti-atomic nuclei. That is, the emergence of strong interaction ‎is the physical force that shouldered the central role within the causal chain that was the development of the ‎universe: From neutrino and quark/anti-quark → nucleon/anti-nucleon → electron/positron, atomic nuclei/anti-‎atomic nuclei → elements/anti-elements and so on. The quark chromodynamics on strong interaction of the ‎Standard Model however accounts for the emergence of strong interaction as basically the result of the union of ‎three colors/anti-colors of quarks/anti-quarks and is, therefore, no more than the result of a random accident. Hence, ‎the principle of strong interaction according to the Standard Model is not a causal property that emerged in line ‎with the flow of the development of the universe. For that reason, it is not possible for this principle to organize and ‎connect the past, the present, and the future in a sophisticated manner.‎

Abstract
In this paper, the wave function is interpreted as space-time: under any representation, the real part of ‎the wave function represents space and the imaginary part represents time. A wave function represents ‎the quantum entanglement (correlation) between time and space. The unitary evolution process is the ‎mutual transformation of space-time. The imaginary time indicates that it can entangle with space in a ‎nonlocalized way and dominate the integrity (unification) of a quantum, which is the essence of ‎quantum entanglement.‎

Abstract
In clarifying the entirety of the universe, the most important processes are the emergence of the universe and the ‎formation of quarks/anti-quarks. The entirety of the universe has emerged in a causal and consecutive manner. ‎According to the Standard Model, from the dawn of the universe, particles such as 3 pairs of neutrinos (v_µ ⁄ v ̅_µ , ‎v_e ⁄ v ̅_e , v_τ ⁄ v ̅_τ ) and 6 pairs of quarks (u/u ̅,d/d ̅ , s/s ̅ , c/c ̅ , b/b ̅ , t/t ̅ ) suddenly emerged with different ‎components not due to causality but due to "vacuum phase transitions" with no space existing in the universe. In ‎this research paper, we must first assume that quarks/anti-quarks are formed inextricably linked with the ‎organization of space-time/anti-space-time and in cooperation with 2 pairs of neutrinos (v_µ ⁄ v ̅_µ , v_e ⁄ v ̅_e ) in ‎the acting of the "strong interaction" and "weak interaction." We must also assume that quarks/anti-quarks are the ‎main body that composes the π- on group ( π^+, π^-, π^±, π^0 ) and the nucleon group ( p, p ̅, n , n ̅ ), and ‎that they play the leading role to compose not only 120 types of atomic nuclei, but also all the ‎particles/antiparticles that exist in the entire universe. In other words, the formed quarks/anti-quarks must clear any ‎and all problems in the above series without any contradictions. This research paper will make clear details such as ‎the fact that only 2 pairs of quarks (u/u ̅ , d ⁄ d ̅ ), were formed; that in the entirety of the universe, only these 2 ‎pairs of quarks were given electrical charges; and that the raw materials of space-time/anti-space-time are the same ‎as quarks/anti-quarks.‎

Abstract
The interpretation of the universe put forward in this series of research papers (30 papers in total) explains ‎how the ‎universe has emerged, developed, and will end in a causal and autonomous manner according to a ‎single principle ‎from start to finish. In other words, the emergence of all particles such as neutrinos, quarks, ‎‎[the π‎-on group ( π^+,π^-,π^±,π^0 ) and the nucleon group (‎‎p‎ ‎,p ̅ ‎‎,n,n ̅ ‎ ‎)], and the 120 types of atomic ‎nuclei as well as ‎motive forces by which work physical forces such as "strong interaction," "weak ‎interaction," the "electromagnetic ‎force," and "gravity" are without exception the result of the causality ‎between the 4 types of entities that existed in ‎a single point at the emergence of the universe. Furthermore, ‎this series of research papers will make clear how the ‎universe has continuously developed according to ‎causality and, in this way, has formed the entirety of today's ‎universe, including all physical matter.‎ This research will begin by proving the insight that there was nothing outside ‎of the single point at the start ‎of the universe. A consideration of the types of entities that existed in a single point at ‎the start of the ‎universe and of the causality between these entities will follow. If we assume that not even space ‎existed ‎outside of the universe, it is not possible for neutrinos and quarks to suddenly emerge, although the ‎‎Standard Model advocates it is possible. As such, this research paper believes that the universe began by ‎‎constructing space. That is, this series of research papers splits from the Standard Model right from the start ‎of the ‎universe.‎

Abstract
A mathematical model for the slit experiments in the heart of quantum mechanics is developed to gain insight into quantum theory. The proposed system-theoretical model is entirely based on commutative mathematics, i.e. convolution, and integral transformations, and starts with spacetime functions with inherent energy-based cause and effect relations of the state-function Ѱ in the complex Hilbert space. The benefits of his approach are as 1-Invariance in time reversal. 2-Deterministic result functions in the model in line with the outcome of slit experiments. 3- Separation of causality and cross-correlations of attained states. 4- Disappearance of a posteriori probability of quantum states. 5- Quantum a priori fixed states after causality interactions have ended, (even) when quanta are (light-years) separated. The model predicts the patterns in the experiments with mathematical functions of the energy distributions. The quantum mechanical counterpart description of the physical reality of slit experiments thus may be considered complete in A. Einstein’s definition. The patterns in double slit experiments are found to be an effect of energy (amplitude-) modulation. An equivalent double-slit pattern can be retrieved from an input modulated 1-slit experiment excluding interference interpretations. The system-theoretical model uses generic properties of quanta and evolves into determinism in ‎quantum mechanics slit experiments. The mathematics in the model handles beables by treatment ‎of momentum p in system theoretical I/O relations of the transformed functions and allows the proposed description by the avoidance of a direct addressing of the individual quanta through variables. The following method yields exact, non-probabilistic results.‎

Abstract
The view of the Standard Model on the β decay of neutrons through weak interaction is that neutrons break down ‎to form ‎protons p and weak bosons W^- and finally into protons‎, electron, and anti-electron neutrinos. The three ‎quarks (u,d,d) that ‎compose neutrons are joined by strong interaction, so bonds formed by strong interaction ‎supposedly cannot be broken ‎by the weak interaction, which is far weaker than strong interaction. Nevertheless, ‎neutrons do decay. Further, the three ‎quarks (u,d,d) that form neutrons are fundamental particles, and it should ‎not be possible for other fundamental particles to ‎emerge from these three fundamental particles. Nevertheless, not ‎only does (u,d,d) change into (u,u,d) but electrons ‎and anti-electron-neutrinos, which are fundamental particles, ‎also emerge. This must not have a double meaning. As shown ‎here, there are multiple contradictions in the weak ‎interaction of the Standard Model.‎ In this paper, the weak interaction is mediated by the π‎-ons group that results from ‎the working of strong interaction step 1 ‎that was described in a previous paper and acts on the nucleons group ‎‎(‎‎p‎, p ̅ ‎‎,n, n ̅ ‎ ‎) that resulted from step 2. In other ‎words, at the point immediately prior to the emergence of weak ‎interaction, all the particles that existed in the universe were ‎used in order to make weak interaction emerge. The ‎weak interaction in this paper refers to the strong interaction bonds ‎composed of neutrons and ‎π^±‎-ons first being ‎dissolved by the strong interaction. As such, the reason why neutrons change to ‎protons is just because the ‎‎d-quark of ‎the neutron is replaced with the u‎-quark of the‎ π^±‎-on.‎

Abstract
In this Part II we focus on a few key elements of quantum mechanics essential for the understanding of quantum technologies and computing. We begin with a subtle but important similarity between classical and quantum mechanics which is typically overlooked in favor of apparent differences. Further, it is reminded that classical motion can be obtained via averaging over quantum distributions/wave functions, and, conversely, quantum distributions can be recast as a superposition of virtual classical paths. Relatedly, we emphasize the importance of the case intermediate between classical and quantum mechanics – that is, quasi-classical mechanics. The above background facilitates additional insights and heuristics into the mechanisms of widely acclaimed long-distance correlations in quantum mechanics and the origins of the coherency in quantum ensembles in the context of wave-particle duality.

Abstract
Speedy developments in Quantum Technologies mandate that fundamentals of Quantum Computing are well explained and understood. Meanwhile, paradigms of so-called quantum non-locality, wave function (WF) “collapse”, “Schrödinger cat” and some other historically popular misconceptions continue to feed mysteries around quantum phenomena. Arguing that above misinterpretations stem from classically minded and experimentally unverifiable perceptions, recasting Principle of Superposition (PS), and key experimental details into classical notions. Revisiting main components of general quantum measurement protocols (analyzers and detectors), and explaining paradoxes of WF collapse and Schrödinger cat. Reminding that quantum measurements routinely reveal correlations dictated by conservation laws in each individual realization of the quantum ensemble, manifesting “correlation-by-initial conditions” in contrast to traditional “correlation-by-interactions”. We reiterate: Quantum Mechanics (QM) is not a dynamical theory in the same sense the Classical Mechanics (CM) is – it is a statistical phenomenology, as established in 1926 by Born’s postulate. That is, while QM rests on conservation laws in each individual outcome, it does not indicate how exactly a specific outcome is selected. This selection remains fundamentally random and represents true randomness of QM, the latter being a statistical paradigm with a WF standing for a complex-valued distribution function. Finally, PS is the backbone of a quantum measurement process: PS can be conveniently viewed as a composition of partial distributions into the total distribution – similar to classical probability mixtures – and is effectuated experimentally by the analyzer part of a measuring device.