Newtonian Analysis of the Big Bang Model and Time-Invariant Cosmology
Abstract
This study re-examines the Big Bang model from a Newtonian and empirically oriented perspective and develops Time-Invariant Cosmology (TIC) as an alternative interpretative framework. TIC treats universal space as time-invariant and regards time, understood as the measured duration and numerical ordering of physical change, as an emergent quantity rather than an independently existing physical dimension. Within this framework, the universe is considered eternal, uncreated, and in dynamic equilibrium. Active galactic nuclei (AGNs) are interpreted as rejuvenating systems through which old matter is transformed into energetic outflows that contribute to continuing astrophysical processes. The paper further re-examines conventional interpretations of cosmological redshift and the cosmic microwave background (CMB), and questions whether observations commonly associated with cosmic expansion and an origin in a remote physical past uniquely require the standard Big Bang interpretation. The aim is not merely to criticize the standard model, but to formulate the observational and conceptual basis of TIC and to identify the physical assumptions on which the competing interpretations depend.